Seminars in Perinatology
Volume 33, Issue 3 , Pages 130-137 , June 2009

The Global Impact of Pre-eclampsia and Eclampsia

  • Lelia Duley, MD

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to: Lelia Duley, MD, Professor of Obstetric Epidemiology, Bradford Institute for Health Research, Temple Bank House, Bradford Royal Infirmary, Duckworth Lane, Bradford BD9 6RJ, UK

References 

  1. WHO. The World Health Report 2005: Make every mother and child count. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2005;
  2. The Millennium Development Goals: Report 2008. New York: United Nations; 2008;
  3. Rosenfield A, Maine D. Maternal mortality—a neglected tragedy (Where is the M in MCH?). Lancet. 1985;2:83–85
  4. Loudon I. Death in childbirth: an international study of maternal care and maternal mortality, 1800-1950. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1992;
  5. Loudon I. General practitioners and obstetrics: a brief history. J R Soc Med. 2008;101:531–535
  6. Hunt P. Maternal health and human rights. Lancet. 2008;371:203–204
  7. Available at: http://www.un.org/millenniumsgoals/maternal.shtml
  8. Robinson M. (Foreward) A Cochrane pocketbook (Pregnancy and childbirth). In:  Hofmeyr G,  Neilson J,  Alfirevic Z, et al. editor. Wiley Cochrane series. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley; 2008;
  9. Report of the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;183:S1–S22
  10. World Health Organization international collaborative study of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (Geographic variation in the incidence of hypertension in pregnancy). Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1988;158:80–83
  11. Knight M. Eclampsia in the United Kingdom 2005. BJOG. 2007;114:1072–1078
  12. Kullberg G, Lindeberg S, Hanson U. Eclampsia in Sweden. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2002;21:13–21
  13. Frias AE, Belfort MA. Post Magpie: how should we be managing severe preeclampsia?. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2003;15:489–495
  14. Duley L. Maternal mortality associated with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1992;99:547–553
  15. Khan KS, Wojdyla D, Say L, et al. WHO analysis of causes of maternal death: a systematic review. Lancet. 2006;367:1066–1074
  16. In:  Lewis G editors. The confidential enquiry into maternal and child health (CEMACH) (Saving mothers' lives: reviewing maternal deaths to make motherhood safer - 2003-2005. The seventh report on Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom). London: CEMACH; 2007;
  17. In:  Lewis G,  Drife JO editor. Why Mothers die 2000-2002: the sixth report of the Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom. London: RCOG; 2004;
  18. Ananth CV, Savitz DA, Bowes WA. Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and stillbirth in North Carolina, 1988-1991. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1995;74:788–793
  19. Department of Health Welsh Office, Scottish Office Home and Health Department, Department of Health and Social Security, Northern Ireland. Report on confidential enquiries into maternal deaths in the United Kingdom 1988-1990. London: HMSO; 1994;
  20. MacKay AP, Berg CJ, Atrash HK. Pregnancy-related mortality from preeclampsia and eclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 2001;97:533–538
  21. Rosenberg K, Twaddle S. Screening and surveillance of pregnancy hypertension—an economic approach to the use of daycare. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 1990;4:89–107
  22. Anthony J. Improving antenatal care: the role of an antenatal assessment unit. Health Trends. 1992;24:123–125
  23. Bouvier-Colle MH, Salanave B, Ancel PY, et al. Obstetric patients treated in intensive care units and maternal mortality (Regional teams for the survey). Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1996;65:121–125
  24. Villar J, Valladares E, Wojdyla D, et al. Caesarean delivery rates and pregnancy outcomes: the 2005 WHO global survey on maternal and perinatal health in Latin America. Lancet. 2006;367:1819–1829
  25. Mattar F, Sibai BM. Eclampsia (VIII. Risk factors for maternal morbidity). Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;182:307–312
  26. Magpie Trial Collaborative Group. Do women with pre-eclampsia, and their babies, benefit from magnesium sulphate? (The Magpie Trial: a randomised placebo-controlled trial). Lancet. 2002;359:1877–1890
  27. Eclampsia Trial Collaborative Group. Which anticonvulsant for women with eclampsia? (Evidence from the Collaborative Eclampsia Trial). Lancet. 1995;345:1455–1463
  28. Conde-Agudelo A, Kafury-Goeta AC. Case-control study of risk factors for complicated eclampsia. Obstet Gynecol. 1997;90:172–175
  29. Engelhard IM, van Rij M, Boullart I, et al. Post-traumatic stress disorder after pre-eclampsia: an exploratory study. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2002;24:260–264
  30. Duley L, Meher S, Abalos E. Management of pre-eclampsia. BMJ. 2006;332:463–468
  31. O'Hara MW, Swain AM. Rates and risk of postpartum depression—a meta-analysis. Int Review Psychiatry. 1996;8:37–54
  32. Tomlinson M, Cooper PJ, Stein A, et al. Post-partum depression and infant growth in a South African peri-urban settlement. Child Care Health Dev. 2006;32:81–86
  33. Patel V, Rahman A, Jacob KS, et al. Effect of maternal mental health on infant growth in low income countries: new evidence from South Asia. BMJ. 2004;328:820–823
  34. Magpie Trial Follow Up Study Collaborative Group. The Magpie Trial: a randomised trial comparing magnesium sulphate with placebo for pre-eclampsia (Outcome for women at 2 years). Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2007;114:300–309
  35. Kramer MS, Seguin L, Lydon J, et al. Socio-economic disparities in pregnancy outcome: why do the poor fare so poorly?. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2000;14:194–210
  36. Hewitt BG, Newnham JP. A review of the obstetric and medical complications leading to the delivery of infants of very low birthweight. 236, 238 Med J Aust. 1988;149:234;passim
  37. Roberts CL, Algert CS, Morris JM, et al. Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy: a population-based study. Med J Aust. 2005;182:332–335
  38. Douglas KA, Redman CW. Eclampsia in the United Kingdom. BMJ. 1994;309:1395–1400
  39. Ngoc NT, Merialdi M, Abdel-Aleem H, et al. Causes of stillbirths and early neonatal deaths: data from 7993 pregnancies in six developing countries. Bull WHO. 2006;84:699–705
  40. Buchbinder A, Sibai BM, Caritis S, et al. Adverse perinatal outcomes are significantly higher in severe gestational hypertension than in mild preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;186:66–71
  41. Taylor D. The epidemiology of hypertension during pregnancy. In:  Rubin P editors. Hypertension in Pregnancy. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1988;p. 223–240
  42. Goldenberg RL, Culhane JF, Iams JD, et al. Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth. Lancet. 2008;371:75–84
  43. Iams JD, Romero R, Culhane JF, et al. Primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions to reduce the morbidity and mortality of preterm birth. Lancet. 2008;371:164–175
  44. Saigal S, Doyle LW. An overview of mortality and sequelae of preterm birth from infancy to adulthood. Lancet. 2008;371:261–269
  45. Villar J, Say L, Gulmezoglu AM, et al. Eclampsia and pre-eclampsia: a worldwide health problem for 2000 years. In:  Critchley H,  MacLean A,  Poston L,  Walker J editor. Pre-eclampsia. London: RCOG; 2003;p. 189–207
  46. Hannaford P, Ferry S, Hirsch S. Cardiovascular sequelae of toxaemia of pregnancy. Heart. 1997;77:154–158
  47. Wilson BJ, Watson MS, Prescott GJ, et al. Hypertensive diseases of pregnancy and risk of hypertension and stroke in later life: results from cohort study. BMJ. 2003;326:845
  48. Bellamy L, Casas JP, Hingorani AD, et al. Pre-eclampsia and risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer in later life: systematic review and metal-analysis. BMJ. 2007;335:974
  49. Magnussen EB, Vatten LJ, Lund-Nilsen TI, et al. Prepregnancy cardiovascular risk factors as predictors of pre-eclampsia: population based cohort study. BMJ. 2007;335:978
  50. Collins M. Preeclampsia and cerebral palsy: are they related?. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1998;40:207–211
  51. Murphy DJ, Johnson AM, Sellers S, et al. Case-control study of antenatal and intrapartum risk factors for cerebral palsy in very preterm singleton babies. Lancet. 1995;346:1449–1454
  52. Jacobsson B, Hagberg G. Antenatal risk factors for cerebral palsy. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2004;18:425–436
  53. Vatten LJ, Romundstad PR, Holmen TL, et al. Intrauterine exposure to preeclampsia and adolescent blood pressure, body size, and age at menarche in female offspring. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;101:529–533
  54. Tenhola S, Rahiala E, Halonen P, et al. Maternal preeclampsia predicts elevated blood pressure in 12-year-old children: evaluation by ambulatory blood pressure monitoring. Pediatr Rev. 2006;59:320–324
  55. Robinson R. The fetal origins of adult disease. BMJ. 2001;322:375–376
  56. Hales CN, Barker DJP. The thrifty phenotype hypothesis: type 2 diabetes. Br Med Bull. 2001;60:5–20
  57. Higgins JR, de Swiet M. Blood-pressure measurement and classification in pregnancy. Lancet. 2001;357:131–135
  58. Askie LM, Duley L, Henderson-Smart DJ, et al. Antiplatelet agents for prevention of pre-eclampsia: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. Lancet. 2007;369:1791–1798
  59. Hofmeyr GJ, Atallah AN, Duley L. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy for preventing hypertensive disorders and related problems. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;3:CD001059
  60. Meads CA, Cnossen JS, Meher S, et al. Methods of prediction and prevention of pre-eclampsia: systematic reviews of accuracy and effectiveness literature with economic modelling. Health Technol Assess. 2008;12:1-270, iii-iv
  61. Duley L, Henderson-Smart DJ. Drugs for rapid treatment of very high blood pressure during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;CD001449
  62. Churchill D, Duley L. Interventionist versus expectant care for severe pre-eclampsia before term. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;CD003106
  63. Sheth SS, Chalmers I. Magnesium for preventing and treating eclampsia: time for international action. Lancet. 2002;359:1872–1873
  64. Duley L, Gulmezoglu AM, Henderson-Smart DJ. Magnesium sulphate and other anticonvulsants for women with pre-eclampsia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;CD000025
  65. Duley L, Henderson-Smart D. Magnesium sulphate versus diazepam for eclampsia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;CD000127
  66. Duley L, Henderson-Smart D. Magnesium sulphate versus phenytoin for eclampsia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;CD000128
  67. Duley L, Gulmezoglu AM. Magnesium sulphate versus lytic cocktail for eclampsia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;CD002960
  68. Simon J, Gray A, Duley L. Cost-effectiveness of prophylactic magnesium sulphate for 9996 women with pre-eclampsia from 33 countries: economic evaluation of the Magpie Trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2006;113:144–151
  69. Aaserud M, Lewin S, Innvaer S, et al. Translating research into policy and practice in developing countries: a case study of magnesium sulphate for pre-eclampsia. BMC Health Serv Res. 2005;5:68
  70. Sevene E, Lewin S, Mariano A, et al. System and market failures: the unavailability of magnesium sulphate for the treatment of eclampsia and pre-eclampsia in Mozambique and Zimbabwe. BMJ. 2005;331:765–769
  71. Langer A, Villar J, Tell K, et al. Reducing eclampsia-related deaths—a call to action. Lancet. 2008;371:705–706

PII: S0146-0005(09)00021-4

doi: 10.1053/j.semperi.2009.02.010

Seminars in Perinatology
Volume 33, Issue 3 , Pages 130-137 , June 2009