Seminars in Perinatology
Volume 31, Issue 3 , Pages 142-158 , June 2007

Recurrent Preterm Birth

  • Shali Mazaki-Tovi, MD

      Affiliations

    • Perinatology Research Branch, Intramural Division, NICHD/NIH/DHHS, Hutzel Women’s Hospital, Bethesda, MD, and Detroit, MI.
    • Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wayne State University/Hutzel Women’s Hospital, Detroit, MI.
    • ,
  • Roberto Romero, MD

      Affiliations

    • Perinatology Research Branch, Intramural Division, NICHD/NIH/DHHS, Hutzel Women’s Hospital, Bethesda, MD, and Detroit, MI.
    • Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI.
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress correspondence to Roberto Romero, MD, Perinatology Research Branch, Intramural Division, NICHD/NIH/DHHS, Hutzel Women’s Hospital, 3990 John R St., Box #4, Detroit, MI 48201.
    • ,
  • Juan Pedro Kusanovic, MD

      Affiliations

    • Perinatology Research Branch, Intramural Division, NICHD/NIH/DHHS, Hutzel Women’s Hospital, Bethesda, MD, and Detroit, MI.
    • ,
  • Offer Erez, MD

      Affiliations

    • Perinatology Research Branch, Intramural Division, NICHD/NIH/DHHS, Hutzel Women’s Hospital, Bethesda, MD, and Detroit, MI.
    • ,
  • Beth L. Pineles, BS

      Affiliations

    • Perinatology Research Branch, Intramural Division, NICHD/NIH/DHHS, Hutzel Women’s Hospital, Bethesda, MD, and Detroit, MI.
    • ,
  • Francesca Gotsch, MD

      Affiliations

    • Perinatology Research Branch, Intramural Division, NICHD/NIH/DHHS, Hutzel Women’s Hospital, Bethesda, MD, and Detroit, MI.
    • ,
  • Pooja Mittal, MD

      Affiliations

    • Perinatology Research Branch, Intramural Division, NICHD/NIH/DHHS, Hutzel Women’s Hospital, Bethesda, MD, and Detroit, MI.
    • Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wayne State University/Hutzel Women’s Hospital, Detroit, MI.
    • ,
  • Nandor Gabor Than, MD

      Affiliations

    • Perinatology Research Branch, Intramural Division, NICHD/NIH/DHHS, Hutzel Women’s Hospital, Bethesda, MD, and Detroit, MI.
    • ,
  • Jimmy Espinoza, MD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wayne State University/Hutzel Women’s Hospital, Detroit, MI.
    • ,
  • Sonia S. Hassan, MD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Wayne State University/Hutzel Women’s Hospital, Detroit, MI.

References 

  1. Lawn JE, Cousens S, Zupan J. 4 million neonatal deaths: When?. Where? Why? Lancet. 2005;365:891–900
  2. Carr-Hill RA, Hall MH. The repetition of spontaneous preterm labour. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1985;92:921–928
  3. Ekwo EE, Gosselink CA, Moawad A. Previous pregnancy outcomes and subsequent risk of preterm rupture of amniotic sac membranes. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1993;100:536–541
  4. Kristensen J, Langhoff-Roos J, Kristensen FB. Implications of idiopathic preterm delivery for previous and subsequent pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol. 1995;86:800–804
  5. Gibb DM, Salaria DA. Transabdominal cervicoisthmic cerclage in the management of recurrent second trimester miscarriage and preterm delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1995;102:802–806
  6. Guinn DA, Goldenberg RL, Hauth JC, et al. Risk factors for the development of preterm premature rupture of the membranes after arrest of preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;173:1310–1315
  7. Kramer MS, Coates AL, Michoud MC, et al. Maternal asthma and idiopathic preterm labor. Am J Epidemiol. 1995;142:1078–1088
  8. Ekwo E, Moawad A. The risk for recurrence of premature births to African-American and white women. J Assoc Acad Minor Phys. 1998;9:16–21
  9. Iams JD, Goldenberg RL, Mercer BM, et al. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network The Preterm Prediction Study: recurrence risk of spontaneous preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998;178:1035–1040
  10. Mercer BM, Goldenberg RL, Moawad AH, et al. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network The preterm prediction study: effect of gestational age and cause of preterm birth on subsequent obstetric outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999;181:1216–1221
  11. Adams MM, Elam-Evans LD, Wilson HG, et al. Rates of and factors associated with recurrence of preterm delivery. JAMA. 2000;283:1591–1596
  12. Bloom SL, Yost NP, McIntire DD, et al. Recurrence of preterm birth in singleton and twin pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol. 2001;98:379–385
  13. Koike T, Minakami H, Izumi A, et al. Recurrence risk of preterm birth due to preeclampsia. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2002;53:22–27
  14. Berghella V, Odibo AO, Tolosa JE. Cerclage for prevention of preterm birth in women with a short cervix found on transvaginal ultrasound examination: a randomized trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;191:1311–1317
  15. Yost NP, Owen J, Berghella V, et al. Number and gestational age of prior preterm births does not modify the predictive value of a short cervix. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;191:241–246
  16. Tekesin I, Eberhart LH, Schaefer V, et al. Evaluation and validation of a new risk score (CLEOPATRA score) to predict the probability of premature delivery for patients with threatened preterm labor. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2005;26:699–706
  17. Durnwald CP, Walker H, Lundy JC, et al. Rates of recurrent preterm birth by obstetrical history and cervical length. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;193:1170–1174
  18. Ananth CV, Getahun D, Peltier MR, et al. Recurrence of spontaneous versus medically indicated preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;195:643–650
  19. Ananth CV, Vintzileos AM. Epidemiology of preterm birth and its clinical subtypes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2006;19:773–782
  20. Meis PJ, Klebanoff M, Dombrowski MP, et al. Does progesterone treatment influence risk factors for recurrent preterm delivery?. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106:557–561
  21. Mercer B, Milluzzi C, Collin M. Periviable birth at 20 to 26 weeks of gestation: proximate causes, previous obstetric history and recurrence risk. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;193:1175–1180
  22. Mercer BM, Macpherson CA, Goldenberg RL, et al. Are women with recurrent spontaneous preterm births different from those without such history?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;194:1176–1184
  23. Romero R, Espinoza J, Kusanovic JP, et al. The preterm parturition syndrome. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2006;113(suppl 3):17–42
  24. Romero R, Espinoza J, Mazor M, et al. The preterm parturition syndrome. In:  Critchely H,  Bennett P,  Thornton S editor. Preterm Birth. London: RCOG Press; 2004;p. 28–60
  25. Joseph KS, Kramer MS, Marcoux S, et al. Determinants of preterm birth rates in Canada from 1981 through 1983 and from 1992 through 1994. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1434–1439
  26. Preterm singleton births: United States, 1989-1996. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1999;48:185–189
  27. Vintzileos AM, Ananth CV, Smulian JC, et al. The impact of prenatal care in the United States on preterm births in the presence and absence of antenatal high-risk conditions. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;187:1254–1257
  28. Little RE, Gladen BC, Birmingham K, et al. Preterm birth rates in Avon County, England, and urban Ukraine. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2004;113:154–159
  29. Morken NH, Kallen K, Hagberg H, et al. Preterm birth in Sweden 1973-2001: rate, subgroups, and effect of changing patterns in multiple births, maternal age, and smoking. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2005;84:558–565
  30. Davidoff MJ, Dias T, Damus K, et al. Changes in the gestational age distribution among U.S. singleton births: impact on rates of late preterm birth, 1992 to 2002. Semin Perinatol. 2006;30:8–15
  31. Papiernik E. Is the high rate of preterm birth in the United States linked to previous induced abortions?. Pediatrics. 2006;118:795–796
  32. Fuchs K, Wapner R. Elective cesarean section and induction and their impact on late preterm births. Clin Perinatol. 2006;33:793–801
  33. Hamilton BE, Minino AM, Martin JA, et al. Annual summary of vital statistics: 2005. Pediatrics. 2007;119:345–360
  34. Collins JW, David RJ, Simon DM, et al. Preterm birth among African American and white women with a lifelong residence in high-income Chicago neighborhoods: an exploratory study. Ethn Dis. 2007;17:113–117
  35. Gazaway P, Mullins CL. Prevention of preterm labor and premature rupture of the membranes. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1986;29:835–849
  36. Nwaesei CG, Young DC, Byrne JM, et al. Preterm birth at 23 to 26 weeks’ gestation: is active obstetric management justified?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1987;157:890–897
  37. Mueller-Heubach E, Guzick DS. Evaluation of risk scoring in a preterm birth prevention study of indigent patients. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989;160:829–835
  38. Roberts WE, Morrison JC, Hamer C, et al. The incidence of preterm labor and specific risk factors. Obstet Gynecol. 1990;76:85S–89S
  39. Yan JS, Yin CS. No decline in preterm birth rate over three decades. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1991;34:1–5
  40. Tucker JM, Goldenberg RL, Davis RO, et al. Etiologies of preterm birth in an indigent population: is prevention a logical expectation?. Obstet Gynecol. 1991;77:343–347
  41. Kramer MS, McLean FH, Eason EL, et al. Maternal nutrition and spontaneous preterm birth. Am J Epidemiol. 1992;136:574–583
  42. Collaborative Group on Preterm Birth Prevention. Multicenter randomized, controlled trial of a preterm birth prevention program. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;169:352–366
  43. Hobel CJ, Ross MG, Bemis RL, et al. The West Los Angeles Preterm Birth Prevention Project. I. Program impact on high-risk women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994;170:54–62
  44. Harbert GM. Efforts to reduce low birth weight and preterm births: a statewide analysis (Virginia). Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994;171:329–338
  45. Lubarsky SL, Schiff E, Friedman SA, et al. Obstetric characteristics among nulliparas under age 15. Obstet Gynecol. 1994;84:365–368
  46. Kristensen J, Langhoff-Roos J, Kristensen FB. Idiopathic preterm deliveries in Denmark. Obstet Gynecol. 1995;85:549–552
  47. Gardner MO, Goldenberg RL, Cliver SP, et al. The origin and outcome of preterm twin pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol. 1995;85:553–557
  48. Graf RA, Perez-Woods R. Trends in preterm labor. J Perinatol. 1992;12:51–58
  49. Berkowitz GS, Papiernik E. Epidemiology of preterm birth. Epidemiol Rev. 1993;15:414–443
  50. Heaman MI, Sprague AE, Stewart PJ. Reducing the preterm birth rate: a population health strategy. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs. 2001;30:20–29
  51. Mauldin JG, Newman RB. Preterm birth risk assessment. Semin Perinatol. 2001;25:215–222
  52. Kramer MS. The epidemiology of adverse pregnancy outcomes: an overview. J Nutr. 2003;133:1592S–1596S
  53. Wen SW, Smith G, Yang Q, et al. Epidemiology of preterm birth and neonatal outcome. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2004;9:429–435
  54. Bibby E, Stewart A. The epidemiology of preterm birth. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2004;25(suppl 1):43–47
  55. Higgins RD, Delivoria-Papadopoulos M, Raju TN. Executive summary of the workshop on the border of viability. Pediatrics. 2005;115:1392–1396
  56. Raju TN. Epidemiology of late preterm (near-term) births. Clin Perinatol. 2006;33:751–763
  57. Steer P. The epidemiology of preterm labor: a global perspective. J Perinat Med. 2005;33:273–276
  58. Mercer BM. Preterm premature rupture of the membranes. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;101:178–193
  59. Rydhstroem H. Gestational duration in the pregnancy after a preterm twin delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998;178:136–139
  60. Fanaroff AA, Stoll BJ, Wright LL, et al. Trends in neonatal morbidity and mortality for very low birthweight infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;196:147–148
  61. Cnattingius S, Granath F, Petersson G, et al. The influence of gestational age and smoking habits on the risk of subsequent preterm deliveries. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:943–948
  62. Menard MK, Newman RB, Keenan A, et al. Prognostic significance of prior preterm twin delivery on subsequent singleton pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;174:1429–1432
  63. Krymko H, Bashiri A, Smolin A, et al. Risk factors for recurrent preterm delivery. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2004;113:160–163
  64. Kitska ZA, Palomar L, Lee KA, et al. Racial disparity in the frequency of recurrence of preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;196:131
  65. Romero R, Mazor M, Gomez R, et al. Cervix, incompetence and premature labor. The Fetus. 1993;3:1–10
  66. Iams JD, Johnson FF, Sonek J, et al. Cervical competence as a continuum: a study of ultrasonographic cervical length and obstetric performance. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;172:1097–1103
  67. Rydhstrom H. Twin pregnancy and the effects of prophylactic leave of absence on pregnancy duration and birth weight. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1988;67:81–84
  68. Goldenberg RL, Mercer BM, Meis PJ, et al. The preterm prediction study: fetal fibronectin testing and spontaneous preterm birth. NICHD Maternal Fetal Medicine Units Network. Obstet Gynecol. 1996;87:643–648
  69. Keirse MJ, Ohlsson A, Treffers PE, et al. Prelabour rupture of the membranes preterm. In:  Chalmers I,  Enkin M,  Keirse MJ editor. Effective Care in Pregnancy and Childbirth. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1989;p. 666
  70. Sachs M, Baker TH. Spontaneous premature rupture of the membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1967;97:888
  71. Gunn GC, Mishell DR, Morton DG. Premature rupture of the fetal membranes: a review. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1970;106:469–483
  72. Christensen KK, Christensen P, Ingemarsson I, et al. A study of complications in preterm deliveries after prolonged premature rupture of the membranes. Obstet Gynecol. 1976;48:670–677
  73. Johnson JW, Daikoku NH, Niebyl JR, et al. Premature rupture of the membranes and prolonged latency. Obstet Gynecol. 1981;57:547–556
  74. Daikoku NH, Kaltreider DF, Khouzami VA, et al. Premature rupture of membranes and spontaneous preterm labor: maternal endometritis risks. Obstet Gynecol. 1982;59:13–20
  75. Gibbs RS, Blanco JD. Premature rupture of the membranes. Obstet Gynecol. 1982;60:671–679
  76. Shubert PJ, Diss E, Iams JD. Etiology of preterm premature rupture of membranes. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 1992;19:251–263
  77. Lebherz TB, Hellman LP, Madding R, et al. Double-blind study of premature rupture of the membranes: A report of 1,896 cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1963;87:218–225
  78. Fayez JA, Hasan AA, Jonas HS, et al. Management of premature rupture of the membranes. Obstet Gynecol. 1978;52:17–21
  79. Naeye RL. Factors that predispose to premature rupture of the fetal membranes. Obstet Gynecol. 1982;60:93–98
  80. Asrat T, Lewis DF, Garite TJ, et al. Rate of recurrence of preterm premature rupture of membranes in consecutive pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991;165:1111–1115
  81. Ekwo EE, Gosselink CA, Moawad A. Unfavorable outcome in penultimate pregnancy and premature rupture of membranes in successive pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1992;80:166–172
  82. Mercer BM, Goldenberg RL, Meis PJ, et al. The Preterm Prediction Study: prediction of preterm premature rupture of membranes through clinical findings and ancillary testing. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;183:738–745
  83. Romero R, Tromp G. High-dimensional biology in obstetrics and gynecology: functional genomics in microarray studies. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;195:360–363
  84. Rizzo G, Capponi A, Vlachopoulou A, et al. Ultrasonographic assessment of the uterine cervix and interleukin-8 concentrations in cervical secretions predict intrauterine infection in patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1998;12:86–92
  85. Gomez R, Romero R, Nien JK, et al. A short cervix in women with preterm labor and intact membranes: a risk factor for microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;192:678–689
  86. Eggert-Kruse W, Botz I, Pohl S, et al. Antimicrobial activity of human cervical mucus. Hum Reprod. 2000;15:778–784
  87. Hein M, Helmig RB, Schonheyder HC, et al. An in vitro study of antibacterial properties of the cervical mucus plug in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;185:586–592
  88. Hein M, Valore EV, Helmig RB, et al. Antimicrobial factors in the cervical mucus plug. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;187:137–144
  89. Evaldson G, Malmborg AS, Nord CE, et al. Bacteroides fragilis, Streptococcus intermedius and group B streptococci in ascending infection of pregnancy (An animal experimental study). Gynecol Obstet Invest. 1983;15:230–241
  90. Cole AM. Innate host defense of human vaginal and cervical mucosae. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2006;306:199–230
  91. Joseph KS, Kramer MS, Marcoux S, et al. Determinants of preterm birth rates in Canada from 1981 through 1983 and from 1992 through 1994. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1434–1439Svinarich DM, Wolf NA, Gomez R, et al. Detection of human defensin 5 in reproductive tissues. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;176:470–475
  92. Romero R, Gomez R, Araneda H, et al. Cervical mucus inhibits microbial growth: a host defense mechanism to prevent ascending infection in pregnant and non-pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;A57:
  93. Espinoza J, Chaiworapongsa T, Romero R, et al. Antimicrobial peptides in amniotic fluid: defensins, calprotectin and bacterial/permeability-increasing protein in patients with microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity, intra-amniotic inflammation, preterm labor and premature rupture of membranes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2003;13:2–21
  94. Yoon BH, Romero R, Moon JB, et al. The frequency and clinical significance of intra-amniotic inflammation in patients with a positive cervical fetal fibronectin. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;185:1137–1142
  95. Leitich H, Kaider A. Fetal fibronectin–how useful is it in the prediction of preterm birth?. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2003;110(suppl 20):66–70
  96. Chang TC, Chew TS, Pang M, et al. Cervicovaginal foetal fibronectin in the prediction of preterm labour in a low-risk population. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 1997;26:776–780
  97. Goldenberg RL, Mercer BM, Iams JD, et al. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network The preterm prediction study: patterns of cervicovaginal fetal fibronectin as predictors of spontaneous preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;177:8–12
  98. Malak TM, Sizmur F, Bell SC, et al. Fetal fibronectin in cervicovaginal secretions as a predictor of preterm birth. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1996;103:648–653
  99. Parker J, Bell R, Brennecke S. Fetal fibronectin in the cervicovaginal fluid of women with threatened preterm labour as a predictor of delivery before 34 weeks’ gestation. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 1995;35:257–261
  100. Burrus DR, Ernest JM, Veille JC. Fetal fibronectin, interleukin-6, and C-reactive protein are useful in establishing prognostic subcategories of idiopathic preterm labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;173:1258–1262
  101. Chuileannain FN, Bell R, Brennecke S. Cervicovaginal fetal fibronectin testing in threatened preterm labour: translating research findings into clinical practice. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 1998;38:399–402
  102. Goffeng AR, Holst E, Milsom I, et al. Fetal fibronectin and microorganisms in vaginal fluid of women with complicated pregnancies. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1997;76:521–527
  103. Lopez RL, Francis JA, Garite TJ, et al. Fetal fibronectin detection as a predictor of preterm birth in actual clinical practice. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;182:1103–1106
  104. Nageotte MP, Casal D, Senyei AE. Fetal fibronectin in patients at increased risk for premature birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994;170:20–25
  105. Oliveira T, de Souza E, Mariani-Neto C, et al. Fetal fibronectin as a predictor of preterm delivery in twin gestations. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1998;62:135–139
  106. Morrison JC, Botti JJ, et al. Prediction of spontaneous preterm birth by fetal fibronectin and uterine activity. Obstet Gynecol. 1996;87:649–655?? RW III
  107. Wennerholm UB, Holm B, Mattsby-Baltzer I, et al. Fetal fibronectin, endotoxin, bacterial vaginosis and cervical length as predictors of preterm birth and neonatal morbidity in twin pregnancies. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1997;104:1398–1404
  108. Tolino A, Ronsini S, Zullo F, et al. Fetal fibronectin as a screening test for premature delivery in multiple pregnancies. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1996;52:3–7
  109. Goldenberg RL, Iams JD, Miodovnik M, et al. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network The preterm prediction study: risk factors in twin gestations. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;175:1047–1053
  110. Sciscione A, Hoffman MK, DeLuca S, et al. Fetal fibronectin as a predictor of vaginal birth in nulliparas undergoing preinduction cervical ripening. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106:980–985
  111. Imai M, Tani A, Saito M, et al. Significance of fetal fibronectin and cytokine measurement in the cervicovaginal secretions of women at term in predicting term labor and post-term pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2001;97:53–58
  112. Mijovic JE, Demianczuk N, Olson DM, et al. Prostaglandin endoperoxide H synthase mRNA expression in the fetal membranes correlates with fetal fibronectin concentration in the cervico-vaginal fluids at term: evidence of enzyme induction before the onset of labour. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2000;107:267–273
  113. Rozenberg P, Goffinet F, Hessabi M. Comparison of the Bishop score, ultrasonographically measured cervical length, and fetal fibronectin assay in predicting time until delivery and type of delivery at term. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;182:108–113
  114. Kiss H, Ahner R, Hohlagschwandtner M, et al. Fetal fibronectin as a predictor of term labor: a literature review. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2000;79:3–7
  115. Garite TJ, Casal D, Garcia-Alonso A, et al. Fetal fibronectin: a new tool for the prediction of successful induction of labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;175:1516–1521
  116. Ahner R, Egarter C, Kiss H, et al. Fetal fibronectin as a selection criterion for induction of term labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;173:1513–1517
  117. Ahner R, Kiss H, Egarter C, et al. Fetal fibronectin as a marker to predict the onset of term labor and delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;172:134–137
  118. Lockwood CJ, Senyei AE, Dische MR, et al. Fetal fibronectin in cervical and vaginal secretions as a predictor of preterm delivery. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:669–674
  119. Brady K, Duff P, Yancey MK. Plasma fibronectin concentrations during normal term labor. Obstet Gynecol. 1990;75:619–621
  120. Grant A. Cervical cerclage to prolong pregnancy. In:  Chalmers I,  Enkin M,  Keirse MJNC editor. Effective Care in Pregnancy and Childbirth. vol. 1:New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1989;p. 633–646
  121. Andersen HF, Nugent CE, Wanty SD, et al. Prediction of risk for preterm delivery by ultrasonographic measurement of cervical length. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990;163:859–867
  122. Iams JD, Goldenberg RL, Meis PJ, et al. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal Fetal Medicine Unit Network The length of the cervix and the risk of spontaneous premature delivery. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:567–572
  123. Heath VC, Southall TR, Souka AP, et al. Cervical length at 23 weeks of gestation: prediction of spontaneous preterm delivery. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1998;12:312–317
  124. Taipale P, Hiilesmaa V. Sonographic measurement of uterine cervix at 18-22 weeks’ gestation and the risk of preterm delivery. Obstet Gynecol. 1998;92:902–907
  125. Hassan SS, Romero R, Berry SM, et al. Patients with an ultrasonographic cervical length ≤15 mm have nearly a 50% risk of early spontaneous preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;182:1458–1467
  126. Kushnir O, Vigil DA, Izquierdo L, et al. Vaginal ultrasonographic assessment of cervical length changes during normal pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990;162:991–993
  127. Okitsu O, Mimura T, Nakayama T, et al. Early prediction of preterm delivery by transvaginal ultrasonography. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1992;2:402–409
  128. Guzman ER, Rosenberg JC, Houlihan C, et al. A new method using vaginal ultrasound and transfundal pressure to evaluate the asymptomatic incompetent cervix. Obstet Gynecol. 1994;83:248–252
  129. Guzman ER, Pisatowski DM, Vintzileos AM, et al. A comparison of ultrasonographically detected cervical changes in response to transfundal pressure, coughing, and standing in predicting cervical incompetence. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;177:660–665
  130. Guzman ER, Vintzileos AM, McLean DA, et al. The natural history of a positive response to transfundal pressure in women at risk for cervical incompetence. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;176:634–638
  131. Guzman ER, Forster JK, Vintzileos AM, et al. Pregnancy outcomes in women treated with elective versus ultrasound-indicated cervical cerclage. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1998;12:323–327
  132. Guzman ER, Mellon C, Vintzileos AM, et al. Longitudinal assessment of endocervical canal length between 15 and 24 weeks’ gestation in women at risk for pregnancy loss or preterm birth. Obstet Gynecol. 1998;92:31–37
  133. Berghella V, Daly SF, Tolosa JE, et al. Prediction of preterm delivery with transvaginal ultrasonography of the cervix in patients with high-risk pregnancies: does cerclage prevent prematurity?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999;181:809–815
  134. Hassan SS, Romero R, Maymon E, et al. Does cervical cerclage prevent preterm delivery in patients with a short cervix?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;184:1325–1329
  135. Macdonald R, Smith P, Vyas S. Cervical incompetence: the use of transvaginal sonography to provide an objective diagnosis. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2001;18:211–216
  136. Rust OA, Atlas RO, Reed J, et al. Revisiting the short cervix detected by transvaginal ultrasound in the second trimester: why cerclage therapy may not help. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;185:1098–1105
  137. To MS, Skentou C, Liao AW, et al. Cervical length and funneling at 23 weeks of gestation in the prediction of spontaneous early preterm delivery. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2001;18:200–203
  138. Berghella V, Haas S, Chervoneva I, et al. Patients with prior second-trimester loss: prophylactic cerclage or serial transvaginal sonograms?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;187:747–751
  139. Williams M, Iams JD. Cervical length measurement and cervical cerclage to prevent preterm birth. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2004;47:775–783
  140. Althuisius SM, Dekker GA. A five century evolution of cervical incompetence as a clinical entity. Curr Pharm Des. 2005;11:687–697
  141. Ramin KD, Ogburn PL, Mulholland TA, et al. Ultrasonographic assessment of cervical length in triplet pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999;180:1442–1445
  142. Souka AP, Heath V, Flint S, et al. Cervical length at 23 weeks in twins in predicting spontaneous preterm delivery. Obstet Gynecol. 1999;94:450–454
  143. Guzman ER, Walters C, O’Reilly-Green C, et al. Use of cervical ultrasonography in prediction of spontaneous preterm birth in twin gestations. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;183:1103–1107
  144. Guzman ER, Walters C, O’Reilly-Green C, et al. Use of cervical ultrasonography in prediction of spontaneous preterm birth in triplet gestations. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;183:1108–1113
  145. To MS, Skentou C, Cicero S, et al. Cervical length at 23 weeks in triplets: prediction of spontaneous preterm delivery. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2000;16:515–518
  146. Yang JH, Kuhlman K, Daly S, et al. Prediction of preterm birth by second trimester cervical sonography in twin pregnancies. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2000;15:288–291
  147. Maymon R, Herman A, Jauniaux E, et al. Transvaginal sonographic assessment of cervical length changes during triplet gestation. Hum Reprod. 2001;16:956–960
  148. Skentou C, Souka AP, To MS, et al. Prediction of preterm delivery in twins by cervical assessment at 23 weeks. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2001;17:7–10
  149. Vayssiere C, Favre R, Audibert F, et al. Cervical length and funneling at 22 and 27 weeks to predict spontaneous birth before 32 weeks in twin pregnancies: a French prospective multicenter study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;187:1596–1604
  150. Parikh MN, Mehta AC. Internal cervical os during the second half of pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Emp. 1961;68:818–821
  151. Guzman ER, Mellon R, Vintzileos AM, et al. Relationship between endocervical canal length between 15-24 weeks gestation and obstetric history. J Matern Fetal Med. 1998;7:269–272
  152. Andersen HF. Transvaginal and transabdominal ultrasonography of the uterine cervix during pregnancy. J Clin Ultrasound. 1991;19:77–83
  153. Romero R. Prenatal medicine: the child is the father of the man. Prenatal Neonatal Med. 1996;1:8–11
  154. Moinian M, Andersch B. Does cervix conization increase the risk of complications in subsequent pregnancies?. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1982;61:101–103
  155. Kristensen J, Langhoff-Roos J, Wittrup M, et al. Cervical conization and preterm delivery/low birth weight (A systematic review of the literature). Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1993;72:640–644
  156. Raio L, Ghezzi F, Di Naro E, et al. Duration of pregnancy after carbon dioxide laser conization of the cervix: influence of cone height. Obstet Gynecol. 1997;90:978–982
  157. Craig CJ. Congenital abnormalities of the uterus and foetal wastage. S Afr Med J. 1973;47:2000–2005
  158. Mangan CE, Borow L, Burtnett-Rubin MM, et al. Pregnancy outcome in 98 women exposed to diethylstilbestrol in utero, their mothers, and unexposed siblings. Obstet Gynecol. 1982;59:315–319
  159. Ludmir J, Landon MB, Gabbe SG, et al. Management of the diethylstilbestrol-exposed pregnant patient: a prospective study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1987;157:665–669
  160. Levine RU, Berkowitz KM. Conservative management and pregnancy outcome in diethylstilbestrol-exposed women with and without gross genital tract abnormalities. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;169:1125–1129
  161. Mays JK, Figueroa R, Shah J, et al. Amniocentesis for selection before rescue cerclage. Obstet Gynecol. 2000;95:652–655
  162. Romero R, Gonzalez R, Sepulveda W, et al. Infection and labor. VIII. Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in patients with suspected cervical incompetence: prevalence and clinical significance. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1992;167:1086–1091
  163. Bengtsson LP. Cervical insufficiency. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1968;47(suppl 1):7–35
  164. Stys SJ, Clewell WH, Meschia G. Changes in cervical compliance at parturition independent of uterine activity. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1978;130:414–418
  165. Sherman AI. Hormonal therapy for control of the incompetent os of pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1966;28:198–205
  166. Boggess KA, Madianos PN, Preisser JS, et al. Chronic maternal and fetal Porphyromonas gingivalis exposure during pregnancy in rabbits. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;192:554–557
  167. Romero R, Espinoza J, Mazor M. Can endometrial infection/inflammation explain implantation failure, spontaneous abortion, and preterm birth after in vitro fertilization?. Fertil Steril. 2004;82:799–804
  168. Hassan S, Romero R, Hendler I, et al. A sonographic short cervix as the only clinical manifestation of intra-amniotic infection. J Perinat Med. 2006;34:13–19
  169. Blackmore-Prince C, Kieke B, Kugaraj KA, et al. Racial differences in the patterns of singleton preterm delivery in the 1988 National Maternal and Infant Health Survey. Matern Child Health J. 1999;3:189–197
  170. Simhan HN, Bodnar LM. Prepregnancy body mass index, vaginal inflammation, and the racial disparity in preterm birth. Am J Epidemiol. 2006;163:459–466
  171. Ananth CV, Misra DP, Demissie K, et al. Rates of preterm delivery among Black women and White women in the United States over two decades: an age-period-cohort analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;154:657–665
  172. State-specific changes in singleton preterm births among black and white women: United States, 1990 and 1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2000;49:837–840
  173. Schieve LA, Handler A. Preterm delivery and perinatal death among black and white infants in a Chicago-area perinatal registry. Obstet Gynecol. 1996;88:356–363
  174. Blackmore CA, Savitz DA, Edwards LJ, et al. Racial differences in the patterns of preterm delivery in central North Carolina, USA. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 1995;9:281–295
  175. Schulman ED. Preterm delivery among women in the South Carolina Medicaid High Risk Channeling Project. J Health Care Poor Underserved. 1995;6:352–367
  176. Savitz DA, Dole N, Herring AH, et al. Should spontaneous and medically indicated preterm births be separated for studying aetiology?. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2005;19:97–105
  177. Merlino A, Laffineuse L, Collin M, et al. Impact of weight loss between pregnancies on recurrent preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;195:818–821
  178. Yost NP, Owen J, Berghella V, et al. Effect of coitus on recurrent preterm birth. Obstet Gynecol. 2006;107:793–797
  179. Klebanoff MA, Nugent RP, Rhoads GG. Coitus during pregnancy: is it safe?. Lancet. 1984;2:914–917
  180. Berghella V, Klebanoff M, McPherson C, et al. Sexual intercourse association with asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis and Trichomonas vaginalis treatment in relationship to preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;187:1277–1282
  181. Kurki T, Ylikorkala O. Coitus during pregnancy is not related to bacterial vaginosis or preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;169:1130–1134
  182. Read JS, Klebanoff MA The Vaginal Infections and Prematurity Study Group. Sexual intercourse during pregnancy and preterm delivery: effects of vaginal microorganisms. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;168:514–519
  183. Brustman LE, Raptoulis M, Langer O, et al. Changes in the pattern of uterine contractility in relationship to coitus during pregnancies at low and high risk for preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol. 1989;73:166–168
  184. Wagner NN, Butler JC, Sanders JP. Prematurity and orgasmic coitus during pregnancy: data on a small sample. Fertil Steril. 1976;27:911–915
  185. Meis PJ, Goldenberg RL, Mercer BM, et al. The preterm prediction study: risk factors for indicated preterm births (Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development). Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998;178:562–567
  186. Ananth CV, Vintzileos AM. Maternal-fetal conditions necessitating a medical intervention resulting in preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;195:1557–1563
  187. Meis PJ, Goldenberg RL, Mercer B, et al. The preterm prediction study: significance of vaginal infections (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units Network). Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;173:1231–1235
  188. Romero R, Mazor M, Wu YK, et al. Infection in the pathogenesis of preterm labor. Semin Perinatol. 1988;12:262–279
  189. Romero R, Sirtori M, Oyarzun E, et al. Infection and labor. V. Prevalence, microbiology, and clinical significance of intraamniotic infection in women with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989;161:817–824
  190. Romero R, Sepulveda W, Baumann P, et al. The preterm labor syndrome: Biochemical, cytologic, immunologic, pathologic, microbiologic, and clinical evidence that preterm labor is a heterogeneous disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;288:
  191. Romero R, Yoon BH, Mazor M, et al. The diagnostic and prognostic value of amniotic fluid white blood cell count, glucose, interleukin-6, and gram stain in patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;169:805–816
  192. Romero R, Mazor M, Munoz H, et al. The preterm labor syndrome. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1994;734:414–429
  193. Gomez R, Romero R, Nien JK, et al. Idiopathic vaginal bleeding during pregnancy as the only clinical manifestation of intrauterine infection. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2005;18:31–37
  194. Espinoza J, Goncalves LF, Romero R, et al. The prevalence and clinical significance of amniotic fluid ‘sludge’ in patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2005;25:346–352
  195. Jacobsson B, Mattsby-Baltzer I, Andersch B, et al. Microbial invasion and cytokine response in amniotic fluid in a Swedish population of women in preterm labor. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2003;82:120–128
  196. Helmig BR, Romero R, Espinoza J, et al. Neutrophil elastase and secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor in prelabor rupture of membranes, parturition and intra-amniotic infection. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2002;12:237–246
  197. Edwards RK, Clark P, Locksmith GJ, et al. Performance characteristics of putative tests for subclinical chorioamnionitis. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol. 2001;9:209–214
  198. Yoon BH, Chang JW, Romero R. Isolation of Ureaplasma urealyticum from the amniotic cavity and adverse outcome in preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol. 1998;92:77–82
  199. Rizzo G, Capponi A, Vlachopoulou A, et al. The diagnostic value of interleukin-8 and fetal fibronectin concentrations in cervical secretions in patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. J Perinat Med. 1997;25:461–468
  200. Garry D, Figueroa R, Guero-Rosenfeld M, et al. A comparison of rapid amniotic fluid markers in the prediction of microbial invasion of the uterine cavity and preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;175:1336–1341
  201. Rizzo G, Capponi A, Rinaldo D, et al. Interleukin-6 concentrations in cervical secretions identify microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;175:812–817
  202. Mazor M, Hershkovitz R, Ghezzi F, et al. Intraamniotic infection in patients with preterm labor and twin pregnancies. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1996;75:624–627
  203. Mazor M, Furman B, Wiznitzer A, et al. Maternal and perinatal outcome of patients with preterm labor and meconium-stained amniotic fluid. Obstet Gynecol. 1995;86:830–833
  204. Baumann P, Romero R, Berry S, et al. Evidence of participation of the soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor I in the host response to intrauterine infection in preterm labor. Am J Reprod Immunol. 1993;30:184–193
  205. Maymon E, Romero R, Pacora P, et al. A role for the 72 kDa gelatinase (MMP-2) and its inhibitor (TIMP-2) in human parturition, premature rupture of membranes and intraamniotic infection. J Perinat Med. 2001;29:308–316
  206. Jacobsson B, Mattsby-Baltzer I, Andersch B, et al. Microbial invasion and cytokine response in amniotic fluid in a Swedish population of women with preterm prelabor rupture of membranes. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2003;82:423–431
  207. Park KH, Chaiworapongsa T, Kim YM, et al. Matrix metalloproteinase 3 in parturition, premature rupture of the membranes, and microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity. J Perinat Med. 2003;31:12–22
  208. Romero R, Yoon BH, Mazor M, et al. A comparative study of the diagnostic performance of amniotic fluid glucose, white blood cell count, interleukin-6, and gram stain in the detection of microbial invasion in patients with preterm premature rupture of membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;169:839–851
  209. Romero R, Quintero R, Oyarzun E, et al. Intraamniotic infection and the onset of labor in preterm premature rupture of the membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1988;159:661–666
  210. Romero R, Ghidini A, Mazor M, et al. Microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity in premature rupture of membranes. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1991;34:769–778
  211. Romero R, Baumann P, Gomez R, et al. The relationship between spontaneous rupture of membranes, labor, and microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity and amniotic fluid concentrations of prostaglandins and thromboxane B2 in term pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;168:1654–1664
  212. Kim YM, Chaiworapongsa T, Gomez R, et al. Failure of physiologic transformation of the spiral arteries in the placental bed in preterm premature rupture of membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2002;187:1137–1142
  213. Kim YM, Bujold E, Chaiworapongsa T, et al. Failure of physiologic transformation of the spiral arteries in patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;189:1063–1069
  214. Lyall F. Mechanisms regulating cytotrophoblast invasion in normal pregnancy and pre-eclampsia. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2006;46:266–273
  215. Robertson WB, Brosens I, Dixon HG. The pathological response of the vessels of the placental bed to hypertensive pregnancy. J Pathol Bacteriol. 1967;93:581–592
  216. Gerretsen G, Huisjes HJ, Elema JD. Morphological changes of the spiral arteries in the placental bed in relation to pre-eclampsia and fetal growth retardation. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1981;88:876–881
  217. Sheppard BL, Bonnar J. Ultrastructural abnormalities of placental villi in placentae from pregnancies complicated by intrauterine fetal growth retardation: their relationship to decidual spiral arterial lesions. Placenta. 1980;1:145–156
  218. Norwitz ER. Defective implantation and placentation: laying the blueprint for pregnancy complications. Reprod Biomed Online. 2006;13:591–599
  219. Burton GJ, Jauniaux E. Placental oxidative stress: from miscarriage to preeclampsia. J Soc Gynecol Investig. 2004;11:342–352
  220. Redman CW. Immunological aspects of pre-eclampsia. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 1992;6:601–615
  221. Chwalisz K. The use of progesterone antagonists for cervical ripening and as an adjunct to labour and delivery. Hum Reprod. 1994;9(suppl 1):131–161
  222. Gorodeski IG, Geier A, Lunenfeld B, et al. Progesterone (P) receptor dynamics in estrogen primed normal human cervix following P injection. Fertil Steril. 1987;47:108–113
  223. Stjernholm Y, Sahlin L, Akerberg S, et al. Cervical ripening in humans: potential roles of estrogen, progesterone, and insulin-like growth factor-I. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;174:1065–1071
  224. Johnson JW, Austin KL, Jones GS, et al. Efficacy of 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate in the prevention of premature labor. N Engl J Med. 1975;293:675–680
  225. Hill LM, Johnson CE, Lee RA. Prophylactic use of hydroxyprogesterone caproate in abdominal surgery during pregnancy (A retrospective evaluation). Obstet Gynecol. 1975;46:287–290
  226. Breart G, Lanfranchi M, Chavigny C, et al. A comparative study of the efficiency of hydroxyprogesterone caproate and of chlormadinone acetate in the prevention of premature labor. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1979;16:381–384
  227. Johnson JW, Lee PA, Zachary AS, et al. High-risk prematurity: progestin treatment and steroid studies. Obstet Gynecol. 1979;54:412–418
  228. Hartikainen-Sorri AL, Kauppila A, Tuimala R. Inefficacy of 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate in the prevention of prematurity in twin pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 1980;56:692–695
  229. Hauth JC, LC , Brekken AL, et al. The effect of 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate on pregnancy outcome in an active-duty military population. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1983;146:187–190
  230. Yemini M, Borenstein R, Dreazen E, et al. Prevention of premature labor by 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1985;151:574–577
  231. Goldstein P, Berrier J, Rosen S, et al. A meta-analysis of randomized control trials of progestational agents in pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1989;96:265–274
  232. Daya S. Efficacy of progesterone support for pregnancy in women with recurrent miscarriage (A meta-analysis of controlled trials). Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1989;96:275–280
  233. Keirse MJ. Progestogen administration in pregnancy may prevent preterm delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1990;97:149–154
  234. Meis PJ, Aleman A. Progesterone treatment to prevent preterm birth. Drugs. 2004;64:2463–2474
  235. Noblot G, Audra P, Dargent D, et al. The use of micronized progesterone in the treatment of menace of preterm delivery. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1991;40:203–209
  236. Iams JD. Supplemental progesterone to prevent preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;188:303
  237. Brancazio LR, Murtha AP, Heine RP. Prevention of recurrent preterm delivery by 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1087–1088
  238. Doggrell SA. Recurrent hope for the treatment of preterm delivery. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2003;4:2363–2366
  239. Einstein FH, Bracero LA. Progesterone and preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;190:1798–1799
  240. Keirse MJ. Progesterone and preterm: seventy years of “deja vu” or “still to be seen”?. Birth. 2004;31:230–235
  241. Di Renzo GC, Mattei A, Gojnic M, et al. Progesterone and pregnancy. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2005;17:598–600
  242. Ness A, Dias T, Damus K, et al. Impact of the recent randomized trials on the use of progesterone to prevent preterm birth: a 2005 follow-up survey. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;195:1174–1179
  243. da Fonseca EB, Bittar RE, Carvalho MH, et al. Prophylactic administration of progesterone by vaginal suppository to reduce the incidence of spontaneous preterm birth in women at increased risk: a randomized placebo-controlled double-blind study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;188:419–424
  244. Meis PJ, Klebanoff M, Thom E, et al. Prevention of recurrent preterm delivery by 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2379–2385
  245. Spong CY, Meis PJ, Thom EA, et al. Progesterone for prevention of recurrent preterm birth: impact of gestational age at previous delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;193:1127–1131
  246. Caritis S, Rouse DJ. A randomized controlled trial of 17-hydroxiprogesterone caproate (17-OHPC) for the prevention of preterm birth in twins. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;6:S2
  247. Dodd JM, Flenady V, Cincotta R, et al: Prenatal administration of progesterone for preventing preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD004947, 2006
  248. Dodd JM, Crowther CA, Cincotta R, et al. Progesterone supplementation for preventing preterm birth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2005;84:526–533
  249. Sanchez-Ramos L, Kaunitz AM, Delke I. Progestational agents to prevent preterm birth: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;105:273–279
  250. Odibo AO, Stamilio DM, Macones GA, et al. 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate for the prevention of preterm delivery: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Obstet Gynecol. 2006;108:492–499
  251. Advisory Committee for Reproductive Health Drugs Meeting. the safety and efficacy of New Drug Application (NDA 21-945), proposed trade name Gestiva, 17 alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate injection, 250 mg/mL, Adeza Biomedical, for the proposed indication prevention of preterm delivery in women with a history of a prior preterm delivery. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/06/minutes/2006-4227M1.pdf. Last accessed August 29, 2006
  252. Christian MS, Brent RL, Calda P. Embryo–fetal toxicity signals for 17a-hydroxyprogesterone caproate in high-risk pregnancies: A review of the non-clinical literature for embryo–fetal toxicity with progestins. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2007;20:89–112
  253. McDonald H, Brocklehurst P, Gordon A: Antibiotics for treating bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD000262, 2007
  254. Carey JC, Klebanoff MA, Hauth JC, et al. Metronidazole to prevent preterm delivery in pregnant women with asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Network of Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:534–540
  255. Carey JC, Klebanoff MA. What have we learned about vaginal infections and preterm birth?. Semin Perinatol. 2003;27:212–216
  256. Riggs MA, Klebanoff MA. Treatment of vaginal infections to prevent preterm birth: a meta-analysis. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2004;47:796–807
  257. Odendaal HJ, Popov I, Schoeman J, et al. Preterm labour: is bacterial vaginosis involved?. S Afr Med J. 2002;92:231–234
  258. Kekki M, Kurki T, Pelkonen J, et al. Vaginal clindamycin in preventing preterm birth and peripartal infections in asymptomatic women with bacterial vaginosis: a randomized, controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2001;97:643–648
  259. Lamont RF, Jones BM, Mandal D, et al. The efficacy of vaginal clindamycin for the treatment of abnormal genital tract flora in pregnancy. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol. 2003;11:181–189
  260. Kekki M, Kurki T, Kotomaki T, et al. Cost-effectiveness of screening and treatment for bacterial vaginosis in early pregnancy among women at low risk for preterm birth. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2004;83:27–36
  261. Larsson PG, Fahraeus L, Carlsson B, et al. Late miscarriage and preterm birth after treatment with clindamycin: a randomised consent design study according to Zelen. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2006;113:629–637
  262. Morency AM, Bujold E. The effect of second-trimester antibiotic therapy on the rate of preterm birth. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2007;29:35–44
  263. Andrews WW, Goldenberg RL, Hauth JC, et al. Interconceptional antibiotics to prevent spontaneous preterm birth: a randomized clinical trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;194:617–623
  264. Espinoza J, Erez O, Romero R. Preconceptional antibiotic treatment to prevent preterm birth in women with a previous preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;194:630–637
  265. Briggs RM, Thompson WB. Treatment of the incompetent cervix. Obstet Gynecol. 1960;16:414–418
  266. Seppala M, Vara P. Cervical cerclage in the treatment of incompetent cervix. A retrospective analysis of the indications and results of. 1970;164 operations. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 49:343–346
  267. Robboy MS. The management of cervical incompetence (UCLA experience with cerclage procedures). Obstet Gynecol. 1973;41:108–112
  268. Crombleholme WR, Minkoff HL, Delke I, et al. Cervical cerclage: an aggressive approach to threatened or recurrent pregnancy wastage. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1983;146:168–174
  269. Lazar P, Gueguen S, Dreyfus J, et al. Multicentred controlled trial of cervical cerclage in women at moderate risk of preterm delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1984;91:731–735
  270. Rush RW, Isaacs S, McPherson K, et al. A randomized controlled trial of cervical cerclage in women at high risk of spontaneous preterm delivery. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1984;91:724–730
  271. Final report of the Medical Research Council/Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists multicentre randomised trial of cervical cerclage. MRC/RCOG Working Party on Cervical Cerclage. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1993;100:516–523
  272. Ayhan A, Mercan R, Tuncer ZS, et al. Postconceptional cervical cerclage. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1993;42:243–246
  273. Golan A, Wolman I, Arieli S, et al. Cervical cerclage for the incompetent cervical os (Improving the fetal salvage rate). J Reprod Med. 1995;40:367–370
  274. Olatunbosun OA, al Nuaim L, Turnell RW. Emergency cerclage compared with bed rest for advanced cervical dilatation in pregnancy. Int Surg. 1995;80:170–174
  275. Guzman ER, Houlihan C, Vintzileos A, et al. The significance of transvaginal ultrasonographic evaluation of the cervix in women treated with emergency cerclage. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;175:471–476
  276. Kurup M, Goldkrand JW. Cervical incompetence: elective, emergent, or urgent cerclage. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999;181:240–246
  277. Althuisius SM, Dekker GA, van Geijn HP, et al. Cervical incompetence prevention randomized cerclage trial (CIPRACT): study design and preliminary results. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;183:823–829
  278. Althuisius SM, Dekker GA, Hummel P, et al. Final results of the Cervical Incompetence Prevention Randomized Cerclage Trial (CIPRACT): therapeutic cerclage with bed rest versus bed rest alone. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;185:1106–1112
  279. Guzman ER, Ananth CV. Cervical length and spontaneous prematurity: laying the foundation for future interventional randomized trials for the short cervix. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2001;18:195–199
  280. Novy MJ, Gupta A, Wothe DD, et al. Cervical cerclage in the second trimester of pregnancy: a historical cohort study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;184:1447–1454
  281. Althuisius SM, Dekker GA, van Geijn HP. Cervical incompetence: a reappraisal of an obstetric controversy. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2002;57:377–387
  282. To MS, Palaniappan V, Skentou C, et al. Elective cerclage vs. ultrasound-indicated cerclage in high-risk pregnancies. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2002;19:475–477
  283. Althuisius SM, Dekker GA, Hummel P, et al. Cervical incompetence prevention randomized cerclage trial: emergency cerclage with bed rest versus bed rest alone. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;189:907–910
  284. Berghella V, Bega G, Tolosa JE, et al. Ultrasound assessment of the cervix. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2003;46:947–962
  285. Odibo AO, Elkousy M, Ural SH, et al. Prevention of preterm birth by cervical cerclage compared with expectant management: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2003;58:130–136
  286. To MS, Alfirevic Z, Heath VC, et al. Cervical cerclage for prevention of preterm delivery in women with short cervix: randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2004;363:1849–1853
  287. Belej-Rak T, Okun N, Windrim R, et al. Effectiveness of cervical cerclage for a sonographically shortened cervix: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;189:1679–1687
  288. Drakeley AJ, Roberts D, Alfirevic Z: Cervical stitch (cerclage) for preventing pregnancy loss in women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD003253, 2003
  289. Drakeley AJ, Roberts D, Alfirevic Z. Cervical cerclage for prevention of preterm delivery: meta-analysis of randomized trials. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;102:621–627
  290. Rust OA, Atlas RO, Jones KJ, et al. A randomized trial of cerclage versus no cerclage among patients with ultrasonographically detected second-trimester preterm dilatation of the internal os. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;183:830–835
  291. Higgins SP, Kornman LH, Bell RJ, et al. Cervical surveillance as an alternative to elective cervical cerclage for pregnancy management of suspected cervical incompetence. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2004;44:228–232
  292. Sakai M, Shiozaki A, Tabata M, et al. Evaluation of effectiveness of prophylactic cerclage of a short cervix according to interleukin-8 in cervical mucus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;194:14–19
  293. Goldenberg RL, Klebanoff M, Carey JC, et al. Metronidazole treatment of women with a positive fetal fibronectin test result. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;185:485–486
  294. Shennan A, Crawshaw S, Briley A, et al. A randomised controlled trial of metronidazole for the prevention of preterm birth in women positive for cervicovaginal fetal fibronectin: the PREMET Study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 2006;113:65–74

PII: S0146-0005(07)00050-X

doi: 10.1053/j.semperi.2007.04.001

Seminars in Perinatology
Volume 31, Issue 3 , Pages 142-158 , June 2007

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution