Seminars in Perinatology
Volume 31, Issue 2 , Pages 112-123 , April 2007

Care and Management of the Infant of the HIV-1-Infected Mother

  • Elijah Paintsil, MD

      Affiliations

    • Departments of Pharmacology and Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT.
  • ,
  • Warren A. Andiman, MD

      Affiliations

    • Pediatrics and Epidemiology & Public Health, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT.
    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to Warren A. Andiman, MD, Department of Pediatrics and Epidemiology & Public Health, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar St, New Haven, CT 06520-8064.

References 

  1. Jackson JB, Becker-Pergola G, Guay LA, et al. Identification of the K103N resistance mutation in Ugandan women receiving nevirapine to prevent HIV-1 vertical transmission. Aids. 2000;14:F111–F115
  2. Connor EM, Sperling RS, Gelber R, et al. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1173–1180
  3. Recommendations of the U.S. Public Health Service Task Force on the use of zidovudine to reduce perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1994;43:1–20
  4. Efficacy of three short-course regimens of zidovudine and lamivudine in preventing early and late transmission of HIV-1 from mother to child in Tanzania, South Africa, and Uganda (Petra study): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;359:1178–1186
  5. Guay LA, Musoke P, Fleming T, et al. Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 randomised trial. Lancet. 1999;354:795–802
  6. Mofenson LM. Can perinatal HIV infection be eliminated in the United States?. J Am Med Assoc. 1999;282:577–579
  7. Turner BJ, Hauck WW, Fanning TR, et al. Cigarette smoking and maternal-child HIV transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1997;14:327–337
  8. Rodriguez EM, Mofenson LM, Chang BH, et al. Association of maternal drug use during pregnancy with maternal HIV culture positivity and perinatal HIV transmission. Aids. 1996;10:273–282
  9. Matheson PB, Thomas PA, Abrams EJ, et al. New York City Perinatal HIV Transmission Collaborative Study Group Heterosexual behavior during pregnancy and perinatal transmission of HIV-1. Aids. 1996;10:1249–1256
  10. Thea DM, Steketee RW, Pliner V, et al. New York City Perinatal HIV Transmission Collaborative Study Group The effect of maternal viral load on the risk of perinatal transmission of HIV-1. Aids. 1997;11:437–444
  11. Capps L, Peng G, Doyle M, et al. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS (CPCRA) Sexually transmitted infections in women infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Sex Transm Dis. 1998;25:443–447
  12. Wasserheit JN. Epidemiological synergy (Interrelationships between human immunodeficiency virus infection and other sexually transmitted diseases). Sex Transm Dis. 1992;19:61–77
  13. Cohen MS, Hoffman IF, Royce RA, et al. AIDSCAP Malawi Research Group Reduction of concentration of HIV-1 in semen after treatment of urethritis: implications for prevention of sexual transmission of HIV-1. Lancet. 1997;349:1868–1873
  14. Coombs RW, Reichelderfer PS, Landay AL. Recent observations on HIV type-1 infection in the genital tract of men and women. Aids. 2003;17:455–480
  15. Wald A, Link K. Risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection in herpes simplex virus type 2-seropositive persons: a meta-analysis. J Infect Dis. 2002;185:45–52
  16. Wawer MJ, Gray RH, Sewankambo NK, et al. Rates of HIV-1 transmission per coital act, by stage of HIV-1 infection, in Rakai, Uganda. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:1403–1409
  17. Mofenson LM. U.S. Public Health Service Task Force recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant HIV-1-infected women for maternal health and interventions to reduce perinatal HIV-1 transmission in the United States. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2002;51:1–38
  18. Andiman WA. Medical management of the pregnant woman infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and her child. Semin Perinatol. 1998;22:72–86
  19. Lindegren ML, Byers RH, Thomas P, et al. Trends in perinatal transmission of HIV/AIDS in the United States. J Am Med Assoc. 1999;282:531–538
  20. Revised guidelines for HIV counseling, testing, and referral. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2001;50:1–57
  21. Royce RA, Walter EB, Fernandez MI, et al. Barriers to universal prenatal HIV testing in 4 US locations in 1997. Am J Public Health. 2001;91:727–733
  22. Breese P, Burman W, Shlay J, et al. The effectiveness of a verbal opt-out system for human immunodeficiency virus screening during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;104:134–137
  23. Cohen MH, Olszewski Y, Branson B, et al. Using point-of-care testing to make rapid HIV-1 tests in labor really rapid. Aids. 2003;17:2121–2124
  24. Guay LA, Musoke P, Fleming T, et al. Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 randomised trial. Lancet. 1999;354:795–802
  25. Kassler WJ, Haley C, Jones WK, et al. Performance of a rapid, on-site human immunodeficiency virus antibody assay in a public health setting. J Clin Microbiol. 1995;33:2899–2902
  26. Dybul M, Fauci AS, Bartlett JG, et al. Guidelines for using antiretroviral agents among HIV-infected adults and adolescents (Recommendations of the Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2002;51:1–55
  27. ACOG committee opinion. Scheduled cesarean delivery and the prevention of vertical transmission of HIV infection. Number 219, August 1999. Committee on Obstetric Practice. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1999;66:305–306
  28. Garcia PM, Kalish LA, Pitt J, et al. Women and Infants Transmission Study Group Maternal levels of plasma human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA and the risk of perinatal transmission. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:394–402
  29. Ioannidis JP, Abrams EJ, Ammann A, et al. Perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by pregnant women with RNA virus loads <1000 copies/ml. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:539–545
  30. The International Perinatal HIV Group. The mode of delivery and the risk of vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1–a meta-analysis of 15 prospective cohort studies. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:977–987
  31. The European Mode of Delivery Collaboration. Elective caesarean-section versus vaginal delivery in prevention of vertical HIV-1 transmission: a randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 1999;353:1035–1039
  32. Cooper ER, Charurat M, Mofenson L, et al. Combination antiretroviral strategies for the treatment of pregnant HIV-1-infected women and prevention of perinatal HIV-1 transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;29:484–494
  33. Andiman WA. Transmission of HIV-1 from mother to infant. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2002;14:78–85
  34. Dorenbaum A, Cunningham CK, Gelber RD, et al. Two-dose intrapartum/newborn nevirapine and standard antiretroviral therapy to reduce perinatal HIV transmission: a randomized trial. J Am Med Assoc. 2002;288:189–198
  35. Cunningham CK, Chaix ML, Rekacewicz C, et al. Development of resistance mutations in women receiving standard antiretroviral therapy who received intrapartum nevirapine to prevent perinatal human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transmission: a substudy of pediatric AIDS clinical trials group protocol 316. J Infect Dis. 2002;186:181–188
  36. De Cock KM, Fowler MG, Mercier E, et al. Prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission in resource-poor countries: translating research into policy and practice. J Am Med Assoc. 2000;283:1175–1182
  37. The Working Group on Mother-To-Child Transmission of HIV. Rates of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Africa, America, and Europe: results from 13 perinatal studies. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1995;8:506–510
  38. Newell ML, Gray G, Bryson YJ. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 infection. Aids. 1997;11(suppl A):S165–S172
  39. Kourtis AP, Bulterys M, Nesheim SR, et al. Understanding the timing of HIV transmission from mother to infant. J Am Med Assoc. 2001;285:709–712
  40. Brossard Y, Aubin JT, Mandelbrot L, et al. Frequency of early in utero HIV-1 infection: a blind DNA polymerase chain reaction study on 100 fetal thymuses. Aids. 1995;9:359–366
  41. Kalish LA, Pitt J, Lew J, et al. Defining the time of fetal or perinatal acquisition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection on the basis of age at first positive culture (Women and Infants Transmission Study (WITS)). J Infect Dis. 1997;175:712–715
  42. Rudin C, Meier D, Pavic N, et al. The Swiss Collaborative Study Group “HIV and Pregnancy.” Intrauterine onset of symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1993;12:411–414
  43. Brandt CD, Sison AV, Rakusan TA, et al. HIV DNA blood levels in vertically infected pediatric patients: variations with age, association with disease progression, and comparison with blood levels in infected mothers. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1996;13:254–261
  44. Newell ML. Mechanisms and timing of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1. Aids. 1998;12:831–837
  45. Mofenson LM, Lambert JS, Stiehm ER, et al. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study 185 Team Risk factors for perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in women treated with zidovudine. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:385–393
  46. Rosenberg PS, Biggar RJ. Trends in HIV incidence among young adults in the United States. J Am Med Assoc. 1998;279:1894–1899
  47. Mofenson LM Committee on Pediatric Aids. Technical report: perinatal human immunodeficiency virus testing and prevention of transmission. Pediatrics. 2000;106:E88
  48. Kogan MD, Martin JA, Alexander GR, et al. The changing pattern of prenatal care utilization in the United States, 1981-1995, using different prenatal care indices. J Am Med Assoc. 1998;279:1623–1628
  49. Phillips KA, Morrison KR, Sonnad SS, et al. HIV counseling and testing of pregnant women and women of childbearing age by primary care providers: self-reported beliefs and practices. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1997;14:174–178
  50. Minkoff HL, Moreno JD. Drug prophylaxis for human immunodeficiency virus-infected pregnant women: ethical considerations. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1990;163:1111–1114
  51. Lallemant M, Jourdain G, Le Coeur S, et al. Single-dose perinatal nevirapine plus standard zidovudine to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Thailand. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:217–228
  52. Parker MM, Wade N, Lloyd RM, et al. Prevalence of genotypic drug resistance among a cohort of HIV-infected newborns. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;32:292–297
  53. Bauer GR, Welles SL, Colgrove RR, et al. Zidovudine resistance phenotype and risk of perinatal HIV-1 transmission in zidovudine monotherapy-treated mothers with moderately advanced disease. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;34:312–319
  54. Dunn DT, Brandt CD, Krivine A, et al. The sensitivity of HIV-1 DNA polymerase chain reaction in the neonatal period and the relative contributions of intra-uterine and intra-partum transmission. Aids. 1995;9:F7–F11
  55. Guidelines for national human immunodeficiency virus case surveillance, including monitoring for human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). MMWR Recomm Rep. 1999;48:29–31
  56. Idemyor V. Continuing debate over HIV therapy initiation. HIV Clin Trials. 2002;3:173–176
  57. Ginsburg AS, Miller A, Wilfert CM. Diagnosis of pediatric human immunodeficiency virus infection in resource-constrained settings. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2006;25:1057–1064
  58. Minkoff H, O’Sullivan MJ. The case for rapid HIV testing during labor. J Am Med Assoc. 1998;279:1743–1744
  59. Peters V, Liu KL, Dominguez K, et al. Missed opportunities for perinatal HIV prevention among HIV-exposed infants born 1996-2000, pediatric spectrum of HIV disease cohort. Pediatrics. 2003;111:1186–1191
  60. Revised recommendations for HIV screening of pregnant women. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2001;50:63–85
  61. Bulterys M, Jamieson DJ, O’Sullivan MJ, et al. Rapid HIV-1 testing during labor: a multicenter study. J Am Med Assoc. 2004;292:219–223
  62. Duration of ruptured membranes and vertical transmission of HIV-1: a meta-analysis from 15 prospective cohort studies. Aids. 2001;15:357–368
  63. Simonds RJ, Oxtoby MJ, Caldwell MB, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia among US children with perinatally acquired HIV infection. J Am Med Assoc. 1993;270:470–473
  64. King SM. Evaluation and treatment of the human immunodeficiency virus-1–exposed infant. Pediatrics. 2004;114:497–505
  65. American Academy of Pediatrics. Immunizations in special clinical circumstances. In:  Pickering LK,  Baker CJ,  Long SS, et al. editor. Red Book: 2006 Report of Committee on Infectious Diseases. (ed 27). Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2006;p. 81–83
  66. Barret B, Tardieu M, Rustin P, et al. Persistent mitochondrial dysfunction in HIV-1-exposed but uninfected infants: clinical screening in a large prospective cohort. Aids. 2003;17:1769–1785
  67. Lorenzi P, Spicher VM, Laubereau B, et al. Swiss HIV Cohort Study, the Swiss Collaborative HIV and Pregnancy Study, and the Swiss Neonatal HIV Study Antiretroviral therapies in pregnancy: maternal, fetal and neonatal effects. Aids. 1998;12:F241–F247
  68. Mofenson LM, Munderi P. Safety of antiretroviral prophylaxis of perinatal transmission for HIV-infected pregnant women and their infants. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;30:200–215
  69. Pacheco SE, McIntosh K, Lu M, et al. Effect of perinatal antiretroviral drug exposure on hematologic values in HIV-uninfected children: an analysis of the women and infants transmission study. J Infect Dis. 2006;194:1089–1097
  70. Capparelli EV, Mirochnick M, Dankner WM, et al. Pharmacokinetics and tolerance of zidovudine in preterm infants. J Pediatr. 2003;142:47–52
  71. Shaffer N, Chuachoowong R, Mock PA, et al. Bangkok Collaborative Perinatal HIV Transmission Study Group Short-course zidovudine for perinatal HIV-1 transmission in Bangkok, Thailand: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 1999;353:773–780
  72. Lallemant M, Jourdain G, Le Coeur S, et al. Perinatal HIV Prevention Trial (Thailand) Investigators A trial of shortened zidovudine regimens to prevent mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:982–991
  73. Wiktor SZ, Ekpini E, Karon JM, et al. Short-course oral zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Abidjan, Cote d’Ivoire: a randomised trial. Lancet. 1999;353:781–785
  74. Dabis F, Msellati P, Meda N, et al. DITRAME Study Group 6-month efficacy, tolerance, and acceptability of a short regimen of oral zidovudine to reduce vertical transmission of HIV in breastfed children in Cote d’Ivoire and Burkina Faso: a double-blind placebo-controlled multicentre trial (DIminution de la Transmission Mere-Enfant). Lancet. 1999;353:786–792
  75. Moodley D, Moodley J, Coovadia H, et al. A multicenter randomized controlled trial of nevirapine versus a combination of zidovudine and lamivudine to reduce intrapartum and early postpartum mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:725–735
  76. Taha TE, Kumwenda NI, Gibbons A, et al. Short postexposure prophylaxis in newborn babies to reduce mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1: NVAZ randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2003;362:1171–1177

 This article is being published as a special bonus addition to our February 2007 issue of Seminars in Perinatology titled “Neonatal Infections.”

PII: S0146-0005(07)00029-8

doi: 10.1053/j.semperi.2007.02.007

Seminars in Perinatology
Volume 31, Issue 2 , Pages 112-123 , April 2007